Journal

Volume 27, Issue 2 (June 30, 2026)

5 articles

• A Scoping Review of Prefrontal Cortical Activation During Working Memory Processing Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy
  by Biraj Bhattarai, Gabriella Treviño and Bijoyaa Mohapatra
  J. CS. 2026, 27(2), 87-137;
  Abstract Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is now popularly used as an alternative and reliable neuroimaging technology to investigate brain activity patterns and hemodynamic responses to mental functions in different populations. It has also been demonstrated to be an effective tool in the detec... [Read more].
  Abstract Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is now popularly used as an alternative and reliable neuroimaging technology to investigate brain activity patterns and hemodynamic responses to mental functions in different populations. It has also been demonstrated to be an effective tool in the detection of brain-signal activations associated with changes in cognitive state. In this study, we conduct a scoping review of existing research involving fNIRS technology and prefrontal cortical activity. This review explores how fNIRS has been applied to examine prefrontal cortex (PFC) activation during working memory (WM) task designs, summarizes evidence on hemodynamic response and functional connectivity changes across different task demands and populations, and investigates how PFC activity and connectivity patterns vary with cognitive load in both clinical and nonclinical groups. A review was performed adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses-Extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines. Online databases were used to identify papers published between 2000 and 2025, from which 48 publications were identified as relevant to the aim of this study. The included literature primarily focused on load-dependent WM paradigms, particularly n-back tasks, which emphasize continuous updating and executive control processes. This scoping review offers an overview of current research trends, highlights methodological nuances, and identifies gaps, setting the stage for future investigations into the intricate relationship between WM and fNIRS. Findings generally suggest that increased cognitive load is associated with stronger prefrontal hemodynamic responses, most often reflected by increased oxyhemoglobin and decreased deoxyhemoglobin, although several studies reported mixed patterns. In contrast, different clinical populations demonstrated variable and disorder-specific activation and connectivity patterns, including reduced, redistributed, or potentially compensatory prefrontal cortex responses depending on diagnosis, task demands, and methodological factors. [Collapse]
• The Free Distortion Task as A Novel Method for Exploring Implicit Processes: The Case of Covid-19 Pandemic
  by Alberto Greco
  J. CS. 2026, 27(2), 139-185;
  Abstract Linguistic research has shown that in a Free Distortion Task (FDT), there is a strong tendency to retain syntagmatic structures. This study hypothesized that this automatic tendency competes with affective factors and that emotional salience can impair executive control. As an ecologically valid cas... [Read more].
  Abstract Linguistic research has shown that in a Free Distortion Task (FDT), there is a strong tendency to retain syntagmatic structures. This study hypothesized that this automatic tendency competes with affective factors and that emotional salience can impair executive control. As an ecologically valid case study, we investigated whether the FDT could implicitly reveal the feelings experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic. Behavioral indices - specifically displacement times and the degree of syntactic order - were correlated with the intensity of anxiety, depression, hypochondria, and isolation, as measured by explicit questionnaires. The results revealed a "dual-hit" on cognitive resources: sensitive participants exhibited longer processing times and a higher degree of order, suggesting that emotional interference triggers a retreat into syntactic automatisms. However, distinct patterns emerged across constructs: while anxiety and hypochondria typically induced cognitive interference, high isolation scores were linked to a rapid processing style, reflecting an implicit avoidance strategy. These effects were confirmed in a second task involving already scrambled sentences, highlighting the transition from propositional to associative processing. The findings demonstrate the FDT’s efficacy as a robust tool for probing implicit affective states and clinical dissociations that explicit measures may fail to capture. [Collapse]
• Why Korean Embedded Clauses Lack Speech-Level Endings: Default Valuation at Spell-Out
  by Myung-Kwan Park
  J. CS. 2026, 27(2), 187-233;
  Abstract This paper investigates why Korean’s rich system of addressee-oriented speech-style morphology, realized as a six-level paradigm of sentence-final endings in matrix clauses, is largely absent in embedded environments. Building on a detailed comparison between root and indirect-speech embedded clause... [Read more].
  Abstract This paper investigates why Korean’s rich system of addressee-oriented speech-style morphology, realized as a six-level paradigm of sentence-final endings in matrix clauses, is largely absent in embedded environments. Building on a detailed comparison between root and indirect-speech embedded clauses, we show that subordination does not merely “remove” politeness: embedded clauses systematically neutralize speech-level contrasts while preserving a reduced inventory of clause-type distinctions via uniform quotative endings (e.g., -ta/nya/(u)la/ca-ko), and they additionally regularize imperatives and exclamatives under embedding. We argue that existing accounts that ban embedded speech-style morphology by stipulating the absence of a performative layer or by hard locality restrictions are insufficient. Instead, we propose that embedded clauses can project the relevant addressee-related structure (AddresseeP/Hearer (Hr)), but that this structure is syntactically inactive in Korean embedded peripheries, yielding default feature valuation at Spell-Out and hence the observed morphological neutralization. We situate this proposal within a broader typology of indexical shift and allocutive agreement by comparing Korean with Magahi, where embedded allocutivity is possible and displays a “tell vs. think” contrast derived via Fin–Hr agreement in finite clauses. Korean, by contrast, patterns as agreement-deficient for Hr under embedding. We further show that jussive-type clauses (such as imperatives, propositives, and promissives) exhibit embedded “shift” via control-like dependencies in Mood rather than allocutive agreement, separating person restrictions from speech-style marking. Finally, we address apparent exceptions in which speech-level morphology surfaces before certain connective endings, arguing these reflect specific licensing by embedders and diachronic reanalysis rather than free embedded allocutivity. The result is a unified syntax–morphology account of embedded speech-style neutralization in Korean. [Collapse]
• Morphemic Knowledge Shapes the Neural Dynamics of Morphological Processing: ERP Evidence from Sino-Korean Prefixed Derivations
  by Sun-Young Lee & Jinwon Kang
  J. CS. 2026, 27(2), 235-280;
  Abstract This study investigated whether individual differences in morphemic knowledge modulate the lexical processing of Sino-Korean prefixed derivations. Previous ERP research (Kang & Lee, 2025) demonstrated that Sino-Korean prefixes function as morphologically independent units during visual word recognit... [Read more].
  Abstract This study investigated whether individual differences in morphemic knowledge modulate the lexical processing of Sino-Korean prefixed derivations. Previous ERP research (Kang & Lee, 2025) demonstrated that Sino-Korean prefixes function as morphologically independent units during visual word recognition, eliciting N250, N400, and LPC effects distinct from semantic and orthographic processing. Building on the Lexical Quality Hypothesis (Perfetti, 2007), which proposes that lexical processing varies as a function of the quality of lexical representations, we reanalyzed the ERP dataset from Kang & Lee (2025) by incorporating morphemic knowledge as a continuous predictor in linear mixed-effects models. The results showed that morphemic knowledge significantly modulated ERP priming effects associated with the N250 and LPC, but not the N400. Morphological and semantic primes elicited larger N250 effects as a function of morphemic knowledge, suggesting more efficient early activation of meaningful lexical relationships among individuals with stronger morphological knowledge. No significant modulation by morphemic knowledge was observed for the N400 effect. Morphemic knowledge also modulated LPC effects, indicating an influence on later stages of lexical evaluation and integration. Region-of-interest analyses showed that morphemic knowledge modulated ERP magnitude but not scalp distribution, suggesting enhanced processing efficiency within existing lexical networks. These findings suggest that morphemic knowledge contributes to lexical quality and facilitates the efficiency of lexical processing during visual word recognition. More broadly, the results highlight the importance of individual differences in linguistic knowledge for understanding the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying word recognition. [Collapse]
• Effects of Short-Term Discrimination Training on the Perceptual Assimilation of Foreign-Language Vowels by L2-Naïve Listeners
  by Eunjin Oh
  J. CS. 2026, 27(2), 281-309;
  Abstract This study examines the effects of short-term AX/AXB discrimination training on the perceptual assimilation of French vowels by native Korean listeners with no prior experience in French. It explores whether acoustic- and category-based training can influence how foreign sounds are mapped onto nativ... [Read more].
  Abstract This study examines the effects of short-term AX/AXB discrimination training on the perceptual assimilation of French vowels by native Korean listeners with no prior experience in French. It explores whether acoustic- and category-based training can influence how foreign sounds are mapped onto native phonological categories. Thirteen participants completed discrimination training sessions with immediate feedback, and perceptual assimilation data were collected before and after training. The results showed a significant improvement in discrimination accuracy, with the total number of errors in the AX task decreasing from 72 before training to 5 after training. However, the effects of training on perceptual assimilation were not uniform, but varied by vowel and consonantal context. For example, the mapping of French /ɛ/ to Korean /e/ was strengthened after training, with greater response consistency and higher goodness ratings. More changes were observed in coronal contexts, where the assimilation category for French /o/ changed from Korean /o/ to Korean /u/, and several vowel contrasts showed changes in their perceptual assimilation patterns. These findings suggest that short-term discrimination training can improve discrimination accuracy and, in limited and context-dependent ways, may affect L2-to-L1 assimilation patterns, indicating that the initial state of foreign speech perception is not entirely fixed. [Collapse]